Journal of Sport and Exercise Physiology

Journal of Sport and Exercise Physiology

The effect of short-term astaxanthin supplementation and cold-water immersion on serum levels of immunoglobulin A and interleukin-6 in trained water polo players following high intensity interval exercise

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Mohammadhadi Asghari
Roghayeh Fakhrpour
Bahloul Ghorbanian
Department of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Tabriz, Iran
10.48308/joeppa.2025.239008.1343
Abstract
Background and Purpose: While physical exercise offers numerous health benefits, it is also a significant contributor to oxidative stress and increased inflammation in the body. Astaxanthin, a natural red ketocarotenoid with potent antioxidant properties, may mitigate exercise-induced oxidative stress and inflammation while enhancing immune responses. Cold water immersion (CWI), a cost-effective recovery method, has also gained attention for post-exercise recovery. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of astaxanthin supplementation and cold-water immersion on serum levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in trained water polo players following high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE).
Materials and Methods: In this double-blind, semi-experimental trial, 24 professional male water polo athletes (mean±SD; age, 18.41±0.98 yrs; height, 178.8±5.26 cm; weight, 76.58±6.35 kg) with regular training routines and at least two years of professional experience were randomly assigned to four groups: supplement, supplement-recovery, placebo, and placebo-recovery. Participants underwent two HIIE sessions (5 × 50-meter maximal-effort sprints) separated by a three-week interval, with the first week designated as a washout period. During the subsequent two weeks, subjects consumed either 25 mg astaxanthin or a starch-based placebo daily with their final meal. Blood samples were collected at four time points per session (pre-exercise, immediately post-exercise, an hour and 24-hours post-exercise), totaling eight measurements. Serum levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were quantified via ELISA. Data were analyzed using SPSS, with one-way repeated measures ANOVA, Bonferroni post-hoc tests, and t-tests, at a significance level of p≤0.05.
Results: Following HIIE, significant changes were observed in IgA and IL-6 levels (p<0.001). Two weeks of astaxanthin supplementation significantly enhanced post-exercise IgA recovery (p=0.023) and reduced IL-6 levels compared to the placebo group (p=0.03). In groups undergoing CWI, IgA levels returned to baseline within 24 hours, while the combined astaxanthin-CWI group demonstrated similar baseline restoration for IL-6.
Conclusion: Short-term astaxanthin supplementation reduces IL-6 and accelerates plasma IgA recovery. CWI may further expedite the return of measured markers to baseline levels. These findings suggest that astaxanthin supplementation and post-acute exercise cold water immersion could effectively reduce exercise-induced inflammation and modulate immune responses in elite athletes.
Keywords
Astaxanthin
Recovery
Immune Proteins
Interleukin-6
Interval Training
Subjects
  1. Barrenetxea-Garcia J, Murua-Ruiz A, Mielgo-Ayuso J, Nuell S, Calleja-González J, de Villarreal ES. Recovery in water polo: how much do we have to know? A systematic review. Journal of exercise rehabilitation. 2022;18(4):225.
  2. Souza D, Vale AF, Silva A, Araújo MA, de Paula Júnior CA, de Lira CA, et al. Acute and chronic effects of interval training on the immune system: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Biology. 2021;10(9):868.
  3. Gonçalves CAM, Dantas PMS, Dos Santos IK, Dantas M, Da Silva DCP, Cabral BGdAT, et al. Effect of acute and chronic aerobic exercise on immunological markers: a systematic review. Frontiers in physiology. 2020;10:1602.
  4. Metsios GS, Moe RH, Kitas GD. Exercise and inflammation. Best practice & research Clinical rheumatology. 2020;34(2):101504.
  5. Hanstock HG, Govus AD, Stenqvist TB, Melin AK, Sylta Ø, Torstveit MK. Influence of immune and nutritional biomarkers on illness risk during interval training. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2020;15(1):60-7.
  6. Kim SH, Kim H. Inhibitory effect of astaxanthin on oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction-a mini-review. Nutrients. 2018;10(9):1137.
  7. Baralic I, Andjelkovic M, Djordjevic B, Dikic N, Radivojevic N, Suzin-Zivkovic V, et al. Effect of astaxanthin supplementation on salivary IgA, oxidative stress, and inflammation in young soccer players. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine. 2015;2015.
  8. Donoso A, González-Durán J, Muñoz AA, González PA, Agurto-Muñoz C. Therapeutic uses of natural astaxanthin: An evidence-based review focused on human clinical trials. Pharmacological Research. 2021;166:105479.
  9. Sueishi Y, Ishikawa M, Yoshioka D, Endoh N, Oowada S, Shimmei M, et al. Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of cyclodextrin-solubilized flavonoids, resveratrol and astaxanthin as measured with the ORAC-EPR method. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition. 2012;50(2):127-32.
  10. Moreira A, de Moura NR, Coutts A, Costa EC, Kempton T, Aoki MS. Monitoring internal training load and mucosal immune responses in futsal athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2013;27(5):1253-9.
  11. Lin K-H, Lin K-C, Lu W-J, Thomas P-A, Jayakumar T, Sheu J-R. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid, stimulates immune responses by enhancing IFN-γ and IL-2 secretion in primary cultured lymphocytes in vitro and ex vivo. International journal of molecular sciences. 2015;17(1):44.
  12. Nieman DC, Woo J, Sakaguchi CA, Omar AM, Tang Y, Davis K, et al. Astaxanthin supplementation counters exercise-induced decreases in immune-related plasma proteins. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2023;10:373.
  13. Tanaka T, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T. Interleukin (IL-6) immunotherapy. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology. 2018;10(8):a028456.
  14. Park JS, Chyun JH, Kim YK, Line LL, Chew BP. Astaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humans. Nutrition & metabolism. 2010;7:1-10.
  15. Galasso C, Orefice I, Pellone P, Cirino P, Miele R, Ianora A, et al. On the neuroprotective role of astaxanthin: new perspectives? Marine drugs. 2018;16(8):247.
  16. Malta ES, Dutra YM, Broatch JR, Bishop DJ, Zagatto AM. The effects of regular cold-water immersion use on training-induced changes in strength and endurance performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Medicine. 2021;51:161-74.
  17. Eimonte M, Paulauskas H, Daniuseviciute L, Eimantas N, Vitkauskiene A, Dauksaite G, et al. Residual effects of short-term whole-body cold-water immersion on the cytokine profile, white blood cell count, and blood markers of stress. International journal of hyperthermia. 2021;38(1):696-707.
  18. An J, Lee I, Yi Y. The thermal effects of water immersion on health outcomes: an integrative review. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2019;16(7):1280.
  19. de Freitas VH, Ramos SP, Bara-Filho MG, Freitas DG, Coimbra DR, Cecchini R, et al. Effect of cold water immersion performed on successive days on physical performance, muscle damage, and inflammatory, hormonal, and oxidative stress markers in volleyball players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2019;33(2):502-13.
  20. jacki mE. The impact of recovery by cold water immersion on some immunoglobulin for young swimmers. The International Scientific Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences. 2020;8(2):19.
  21. Pournot H, Bieuzen F, Duffield R, Lepretre P-M, Cozzolino C, Hausswirth C. Short term effects of various water immersions on recovery from exhaustive intermittent exercise. European journal of applied physiology. 2011;111:1287-95.
  22. Peake JM, Roberts LA, Figueiredo VC, Egner I, Krog S, Aas SN, et al. The effects of cold water immersion and active recovery on inflammation and cell stress responses in human skeletal muscle after resistance exercise. The Journal of physiology. 2017;595(3):695-711.
  23. Nugent F, Comyns T, Kearney P, Warrington G. Ultra-short race-pace training (USRPT) In swimming: current perspectives. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine. 2019:133-44.
  24. Mohr M, Nordsborg NB, Lindenskov A, Steinholm H, Nielsen HP, Mortensen J, et al. High-intensity intermittent swimming improves cardiovascular health status for women with mild hypertension. BioMed research international. 2014;2014.
  25. Machado AF, Ferreira PH, Micheletti JK, de Almeida AC, Lemes ÍR, Vanderlei FM, et al. Can water temperature and immersion time influence the effect of cold water immersion on muscle soreness? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports medicine. 2016;46:503-14.
  26. .Odeberg JM, Lignell Å, Pettersson A, Höglund P. Oral bioavailability of the antioxidant astaxanthin in humans is enhanced by incorporation of lipid based formulations. European journal of pharmaceutical sciences. 2003;19(4):299-304.
  27. Res PT, Cermak NM, Stinkens R, Tollakson T, Haenen GR, Bast A, et al. Astaxanthin supplementation does not augment fat use or improve endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(6):1158-65.
  28. Jyonouchi H, Sun S, Gross M. Effect of carotenoids on in vitro immunoglobulin production by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: Astaxanthin, a carotenoid without vitamin a activity, enhances in vitro immunoglobulin production in response to at‐dependent stimulant and antigen. 1995.
  29. Hejazi K, Hosseini S-RA. Influence of selected exercise on serum immunoglobulin, testosterone and cortisol in semi-endurance elite runners. Asian journal of sports medicine. 2012;3(3):185.
  30. Abd El-Kader SM. Moderate versus high intensity exercise training on leptin and selected iImmune system response in obese subjects. European Journal of General Medicine. 2011;8(4):268-72.
  31. Pourvaghar M, Ghaeini A, Ravasi A, Kordi M. Effects of training time on serum immunoglobulin alterations and cortisol testosterone responses in male athlete students. Biol Sport. 2010;27(1):25-8.
  32. Okai Y, Higashi-Okai K. Possible immunomodulating activities of carotenoids in in vitro cell culture experiments. International journal of Immunopharmacology. 1996;18(12):753-8.
  33. Pingitore A, Lima GPP, Mastorci F, Quinones A, Iervasi G, Vassalle C. Exercise and oxidative stress: Potential effects of antioxidant dietary strategies in sports. Nutrition. 2015;31(7-8):916-22.
  34. Rezaie Z, Esfarjani F, Marandy SM. Changes in S-IgA Level following Intensive Exercise and Immersion in Hot and Cold Water. journal of Isfahan Medical School. 2012;30(175).
  35. DeMartini JK. Changes in markers of salivary immunity, stress, and muscle damage following an ironman triathlon and during recovery. 2013.
  36. 순태박, 성훈허, 경준안, 영우권, 경훈박, 준호김, et al. The Effect of Cold Water Immersion on Physiological Indices, Inflammatory and Immune Responses during a Soccer Match. The Korean Journal of Sports Medicine. 2021;39(4):170-80.
  37. Santiago DDC, Lopes JSS, Neto AMdM, Andrade CMB. Analysis of Biomarkers in Response to High Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) and High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): A Systematic Review Study. Archives of Current Research International. 2021;21(3):59-72.
  38. Wu Y, Bashir MA, Shao C, Wang H, Zhu J, Huang Q. Astaxanthin targets IL-6 and alleviates the LPS-induced adverse inflammatory response of macrophages. Food & Function. 2024;15(8):4207-22.
  39. Pedersen B. IL-6 signalling in exercise and disease. Biochemical Society Transactions. 2007;35(5):1295-7.
  40. Febbraio MA, Pedersen BK. Muscle‐derived interleukin‐6: mechanisms for activation and possible biological roles. The FASEB journal. 2002;16(11):1335-47.
  41. Febbraio MA, Pedersen BK. Contraction-induced myokine production and release: is skeletal muscle an endocrine organ? Exercise and sport sciences reviews. 2005;33(3):114-9.
  42. Ohsaki A, Miyano Y, Tanaka R, Tanuma S-i, Kojima S, Tsukimoto M. A novel mechanism of γ-irradiation-induced IL-6 production mediated by P2Y11 receptor in epidermal keratinocytes. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2018;41(6):925-36.
  43. Golshah A, Sadeghi E, Sadeghi M. Association of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha, Interleukin-1β, Interleukin-8, and Interferon-γ with Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Both Children and Adults: A Meta-Analysis of 102 Articles. journal of Clinical Medicine. 2024;13(5):1484.
  44. Nunes RFH, Duffield R, Nakamura FY, Bezerra EdS, Sakugawa RL, Loturco I, et al. Recovery following Rugby Union matches: effects of cold water immersion on markers of fatigue and damage. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2019;44(5):546-56.
  45. Horgan BG, West NP, Tee N, Halson SL, Drinkwater EJ, Chapman DW, et al. Effect of repeated post-resistance exercise cold or hot water immersion on in-season inflammatory responses in academy rugby players: a randomised controlled cross-over design. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2024:1-14.
  46. Gregson W, Black MA, Jones H, Milson J, Morton J, Dawson B, et al. Influence of cold water immersion on limb and cutaneous blood flow at rest. The American journal of sports medicine. 2011;39(6):1316-23.
  47. Stacey DL, Gibala MJ, Martin Ginis KA, Timmons BW. Effects of recovery method after exercise on performance, immune changes, and psychological outcomes. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy. 2010;40(10):656-65.
  48. Aidar FJ, Santos WYHd, Machado SdC, Nunes-Silva A, Vieira ÉLM, Valenzuela Pérez DI, et al. Enhancing Post-Training Muscle Recovery and Strength in Paralympic Powerlifting Athletes with Cold-Water Immersion, a Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025;22(1):122.

 

  • Receive Date 03 March 2025
  • Revise Date 09 May 2025
  • Accept Date 11 May 2025
  • First Publish Date 11 May 2025
  • Publish Date 23 September 2025